The role of and background to higher education in Japan

4.1 Under the School Education Law in Japan, the purpose of universities is to "conduct teaching and research in depth in specialised academic subjects as well as to provide broad knowledge as a centre of learning and to develop intellectual, moral and practical abilities".

4.2 There are four major types of post secondary education institution in Japan (Table 4.1):

• universities;
• junior colleges;
• colleges of technology; and
• special training colleges.

Participation and access

4.3 Although compulsory education ends at 15, 97 per cent of students elect to stay on into upper secondary education until 18.

4.4 There are approximately 3.9 million post-secondary education students in Japan: over 3.1 million are in the private sector (Table 4.2).

4.5 The progression rates of students into the different types of institution are shown in Chart 4.1. In 1994, around 62 per cent of the 18 year old cohort population went into some form of post-secondary education. Of this group about 30 per cent went to universities, about 13 per cent to junior colleges, 0.5 per cent to colleges of technology. In addition, about 19 per cent went on to post-secondary courses in special training colleges which are perhaps more closely analogous to our further education colleges. The Ministry of Education, Science, Sport and Culture (the Monbusho) tends to refer to the universities and junior colleges as higher education provision, which means that in 1994 it claims to have a 44 per cent participation rate.

4.6 Students qualified for admission to university are selected through the entrance examination administered by each university separately. There is intense competition to enter the most prestigious universities with parents paying for extra tuition for their children from the age of 14 onwards. In order to enter the top universities many students take an additional year (beyond secondary school) to help prepare for the entrance examination. For example, at Tokyo Institute of Technology over 50 per cent of entrants had taken an extra year for preparation towards the entrance examination.

4.7 The Monbusho has recently introduced a standard nation-wide test which can be used by all national and local public as well as some private ones. Many universities appear to use this test as a screening device and continue to set their own examinations.

4.8 Universities are at the apex of the Japanese post-secondary education system and require the completion of upper secondary school for admission. Programmes usually last for four years. The most popular subject area is the social sciences (40 per cent), followed by engineering (20 per cent) and humanities (16 per cent) (Table 4.3).

4.10 Colleges of technology, unlike universities or junior colleges, require the completion of lower secondary schooling for admission and offer five-year programmes aimed at training practical engineers. Students are awarded an associate degree and can apply for transfer to the upper division of a university. Unlike junior colleges, the percentage of male students is high at 84 per cent.

4.11 Special training schools were created in 1976 to provide high level technical training in a specialist area of study. Amongst these schools some offer "post-secondary courses of special training colleges" which require the completion of upper secondary education for admission. The vast majority of these training schools are private with the cost of attendance running at about £7,500 over two years.

4.12 One third of the students, i.e. some 1.1 million, are on two year programmes leading to an associate degree, in junior colleges and special training colleges. According to the special training school visited, demand for their graduates from employers is high. Starting salaries for associate graduates from special training schools is around five per cent lower than graduates from universities.

4.13 Participation rates have been increasing steadily for the past ten years along with an increasing number of 18 years olds. Over the next ten years, however, the number of 18 year olds will decrease rapidly. There are no fixed plans for increasing future participation although the Monbusho said that it was likely to increase to above 50 per cent in the next century. This would represent a fairly steady state in terms of the absolute number of entrants to higher education given the decline in the number of 18 year olds.

4.14 Within the total number of students there are also some expectations about changes in proportions of students attending different types of institution. There was universal agreement that the number of students attending junior colleges would decrease continuing a trend that has already started. The head of a special training college predicted that the numbers of students entering the special training colleges would increase. Heads of the national universities predicted that, for them, student numbers would remain stable, although they predicted that a number of the smaller (less prestigious) private universities would have to close.

Teaching and learning

4.15 In order to graduate from a university students must obtain 124 credits or more over a period of not less than four years. The basic pattern of education has been a 2 + 2 system with general education in the first two years, followed by specialisation in the latter two years.

4.16 Students pursuing the standard four year degree programme have, until recently, been required to commit at least 20 per cent of their time to the liberal arts. As with education between 15-18, in higher education value is placed on breadth, and whilst the Ministry regulation on the 20 per cent has recently been withdrawn, universities are not thought likely, in general, to depart from past practice. Specialisation is thought to come best at the postgraduate stage.

4.17 The Monbusho has recently relaxed its control on the structure of programmes causing universities to review their programmes and create new combinations, including introducing interdisciplinary options for students.

4.18 Chart 4.2 shows the structure of an applied chemistry programme located within the faculty of engineering at a national university. An interesting point is the requirement for English and another foreign language.

4.19 Most students obtain a degree within the minimum duration: 81 per cent of students who entered four-year programmes in 1988 completed their study in 1992. At the University of Hokkaido, particularly able students can skip a year and move directly into a masters programme after three years.

4.20 Transfer from junior colleges or colleges of technology to university is possible and has doubled in the past five years, although it is still fairly limited. In 1994, 11,000 students transferred into universities. Transfer from post-secondary programmes of special training colleges is not currently allowed, although this is being reviewed at present by a national University Council established in 1987.

4.21 There are few formal contacts between employers and undergraduate teaching in higher education. However, employers had strong views on the deficiencies of the higher education system in relation to their needs and to the needs of the Japanese economy. The Nikkeiren (the Japanese Federation of Employers Association) believed that the present higher education system needs to change so that graduates are creative, can solve problems, can work in the global economy and are leaders. It needs to foster individuality and produce people who are able to think and to reason – not simply know the facts. Employers also stressed the importance of a good basic education and work experience for students.

4.22 Employers and many leading academics praised the UK system of higher education in its ability to produce creative and innovative graduates – they believed that they needed to move their system more in the direction of UK universities.

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